How Does Settler Colonialism Connect to Eating Disorders?
The relationship between settler colonialism and eating disorders (ED) is complex and multifaceted. Settler colonialism, a form of colonization where the colonizers come to stay and exert control, has profound impacts on Indigenous peoples' health, including the prevalence and manifestation of ED.
Settler colonialism is a social formation structuring nation-states like the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Palestine/Israel. Unlike franchise colonialism, which focuses on exploiting labor and resources, settler colonialism seeks the elimination and replacement of Indigenous communities. This process involves genocidal violence, land dispossession, and the establishment of hierarchical systems that perpetuate Indigenous marginalization. Settlers "carry their sovereignty with them," creating separate polities and justifying land expropriation through racialized narratives of superiority (Wispelwey, 2023).
This form of colonialism is distinct in that it involves settlers coming to stay and developing a distinctive identity and sovereignty over time. It is not a past event but an enduring structure actively shaping the present, influencing social, economic, and political structures globally. The United States, as a leading settler colonial state, exemplifies this influence through its ongoing "pioneer logics" in interventions and policies worldwide.
The ideology of settler colonialism becomes ingrained and accepted by both non-Native and Indigenous communities. Because settler colonialism is widespread, people in the US may not see an alternative framework. The core principles of settler colonialism, such as private property, individualism, Christianity, patriarchal systems, lineage, governance, medicalized healing, and capitalism, are deeply rooted in US policies, structures, families, schools, churches, and every aspect of the settler state. In contrast to other colonial endeavors characterized by a cyclical pattern of exploration and eventual return to the homeland, in settler colonialism, "settlers come to stay."
At its most successful, settlers aim to take over and eventually see themselves as the original inhabitants, blending the colony and homeland both in space and ideas. In countries like the US or Australia, where Indigenous people are often ignored in history despite being very much alive, settler colonialism is not easily recognized by the settler society. Instead, it's replaced by the idea of a newly imagined nation-building effort that claims to be postcolonial. Settler colonialism “covers its tracks” by orchestrating its own demise. This way, it can deny its colonial past and promote stories of a diverse immigrant society where no group has special rights.
Indigenous societies' traditional ways of life dwindled, with populations declining due to warfare and tribes forcibly displaced under harsh conditions. Fertility decreased, diseases and alcoholism took a toll, extensive animal hunting led to species nearing extinction, and instances of sexual violence increased. Additionally, many Indigenous practices were prohibited, among other challenges.
Research on Trauma and Eating Disorders
Trauma is pivotal in ED development. Childhood adversity and major traumatic events are significant risk factors, occurring in 37-74% of cases of ED (Aoun, 2013). Genocide and war crimes greatly influence ED development. Food supply disruption, leading to irregular eating patterns, compounds the impact of genocide, with consequences like disrupted routines, loss of family, and witnessing trauma. This, along with increased stress, can increase the risk of ED, anxiety, depression, and PTSD (Aoun, 2013).
Although research on the trauma experienced by civilians is limited, a study involving 642 male war veterans revealed that exposure to multiple types of trauma is associated with an increased risk of developing ED symptoms (Aoun, 2018). This finding suggests that civilians, who may face compounded traumas in conflict zones, likely experience similar or even heightened risks.
Stressors for ED can include harsh physical punishment, exposure to captivity, life-threatening illness or injury, severe human suffering, sudden violent or accidental death, and sexual, physical, and emotional abuse or neglect (Brewerton, 2022). Furthermore, mothers who experienced greater levels of exposure to the World War II Jewish Holocaust tend to have daughters with a higher likelihood of having ED (Zohar, 2007).
Food scarcity contributes to ED. Food-insecure families may experience periods of scarcity followed by abundance, a cycle known as "feast or famine." Scarcity can lead to reduced eating, while abundance may result in overeating, potentially leading to binge eating (Nagata, 2023). Not having enough food can be stressful and trigger the release of cortisol, a stress hormone, which might also contribute to binge eating behaviors (Nagata, 2023).
Studies show that between 40% and 60% of the differences we see in people with anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorder (BED) can be attributed to their genetics (Brewerton, 2022). Additionally, genetics also play a significant role in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociation (Brewerton, 2022). PTSD is linked to the development of EDs. In one study, they found that mothers who experienced greater levels of exposure to the World War II Jewish Holocaust tend to have daughters with a higher likelihood of having eating disorders. Although there is no direct connection between an individual's exposure to and their own ED, there appears to be an intergenerational influence (Zohar, 2007).
Recent studies link multiple trauma types and trauma severity to ED. A history of multiple trauma types can be a risk factor for eating disorders, including physical and sexual abuse (Groth, 2019). Greater trauma severity is associated with increased eating disorder symptoms, particularly binge-eating and purging (Groth, 2019). Childhood trauma and its perceived loss of control are thought to underlie eating disorders, with symptoms used as a way to regain control. Abuse survivors, lacking internal control, seek external control, connecting to ED symptoms (Groth, 2019). The intense and overwhelming emotions stemming from trauma can lead to disordered eating behaviors as a way to cope. Focusing on eating serves to divert these emotions toward food and body shape. Such individuals also seek control over future traumatic events and the emotions linked to them through their relationship with food (Groth, 2019).
Here are ways settler colonialism connects to the development and maintenance of EDs:
Erosion of Sovereignty and Self-Determination
The erosion of sovereignty and self-determination of Indigenous nations strips communities of their ability to govern themselves and maintain their cultural practices. This loss leads to a disconnection from traditional food systems and spiritual practices, resulting in malnourishment, food insecurity, climate disaster, and psychological distress. The forced reliance on government agencies for food access, often referred to as "food prisons," perpetuates cycles of dependency and undermines community resilience. Nutritional stress, climate disaster, and psychological factors stemming from these disruptions heighten the risk of developing ED.
Disruption of Traditional Food Systems
Traditional food systems are integral to the health and well-being of Indigenous communities. Settler colonialism prioritizes profit over human and ecological life, leading to environmental destruction, land dispossession, and forced relocation. The disruption of these systems results in food insecurity and nutritional stress, significantly impacting physical health and increasing the likelihood of eating disorders. The loss of traditional ecological knowledge and spiritual practices tied to the land exacerbates this issue, as communities lose their connection to culturally significant foods and practices that promote holistic well-being.
Studies on the Dutch Famine of 1944-1945 and the Chinese Famine of 1959-1962 have shown that insufficient prenatal and early-life nutrition profoundly impacts fetal development. Moreover, it's been suggested that these effects might be hereditary, possibly through epigenetic mechanisms, affecting not just the individuals themselves but also their descendants (Tolkunova, 2023). There are three pathways through which epigenetic changes can be passed down in families: both sperm and egg cells, disruptions in the attachment relationship between caregivers and children, and environmental influences that determine when and how genes are activated or deactivated (Robertson, 2023).
Family and Community Disruption
Settler colonialism dismantles traditional family structures and community networks. The introduction of the nuclear family model, patriarchal systems, individualism, and isolation undermines the communal and matriarchal systems that many Indigenous cultures are built upon. These disruptions create significant psychological distress as individuals experience a loss of cultural identity and community support. Without the grounding force of their traditional support systems, many Indigenous peoples struggle with feelings of isolation and alienation, which can contribute to the development of eating disorders as a coping mechanism.
Capitalism and War
The introduction of industrial capitalism and its high productivity demands place significant stress on workers, leading to emotional burnout and unhealthy coping mechanisms, such as disordered eating. Additionally, the trauma and displacement caused by war and genocide contribute to psychological distress and malnutrition, further increasing the risk of eating disorders. The adoption and internalization of capitalist values, which prioritize productivity and profit over well-being, lead to embodied distress that manifests in physical and emotional disorders, including eating disorders.
Introduction of Christianity
The introduction of Christianity and its associated moral values, including the emphasis on monogamous marriage norms and rigid gender roles, disrupts Indigenous spiritual practices and cultural traditions. The criminalization of these practices and the introduction of sin and shame around food and body image contribute to the development of eating disorders. Traditional rituals and communal activities that revolved around food and eating are replaced or denigrated, leading to distorted perceptions of food and body image. The coercive and traumatic conversion efforts further instill feelings of guilt and shame around food, which can manifest as disordered eating behaviors.
Environmental Destruction
Environmental destruction caused by settler colonial practices leads to ecological imbalance and the erosion of cultural and spiritual identities. This disconnection from the natural world and traditional practices increases stress, anxiety, and feelings of isolation, which are significant risk factors for eating disorders. The loss of access to native land, ecological methods, and spiritual practices disrupts the community's connection to their environment, traditional food, access to food, exacerbating the psychological and physical impacts of colonialism.
Racism and Healthcare Disruption
Racism and the establishment of legal and social structures that benefit settlers over Indigenous peoples create significant health disparities and economic disadvantages. Acculturation, everyday racism, and internalized racism increase the risk of eating disorder development. The marginalization of fatness and the promotion of white, thin beauty standards further exacerbate body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Additionally, the disruption of healthcare systems and the prioritization of profit over effective treatment result in a lack of culturally competent care for Indigenous communities. This neglect worsens health outcomes and restricts access to necessary treatment for eating disorders.
Globalization and Capitalism
The global spread of capitalist values promotes consumerism and idealized body images, introducing unhealthy eating behaviors and increasing vulnerability to disordered eating. The pervasive influence of media and globalization spreads harmful beauty standards and consumption patterns, further marginalizing those who do not conform to these ideals. This cultural shift perpetuates the stigma and discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples and exacerbates the pressures that contribute to eating disorders.
Racism and Healthcare Disruption
Racism and the establishment of legal and social structures that benefit settlers over Indigenous peoples create significant health disparities and economic disadvantages. Acculturation, everyday racism, and internalized racism increase the risk of eating disorder development. The marginalization of fatness and the promotion of white, thin beauty standards further exacerbate body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Additionally, the disruption of healthcare systems and the prioritization of profit over effective treatment result in a lack of culturally competent care for Indigenous communities. This neglect worsens health outcomes and restricts access to necessary treatment for eating disorders.
Globalization and Capitalism
The global spread of capitalist values promotes consumerism and idealized body images, introducing unhealthy eating behaviors and increasing vulnerability to disordered eating. The pervasive influence of media and globalization spreads harmful beauty standards and consumption patterns, further marginalizing those who do not conform to these ideals. This cultural shift perpetuates the stigma and discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples and exacerbates the pressures that contribute to eating disorders.
Gender and Sexuality Dynamics
The disruption of traditional gender and sexuality dynamics and the imposition of European hyper-patriarchy contribute significantly to gender-related stress and trauma among Indigenous populations. In many Indigenous cultures, gender roles were fluid and inclusive, with Two-Spirit individuals holding respected positions within their communities. However, European colonial powers enforced rigid binary gender norms and patriarchal structures, marginalizing and erasing these identities. This imposition leads to widespread misogyny, objectification, and violence, exemplified by the ongoing crisis of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Two-Spirit Individuals. Additionally, colonial systems institutionalized homophobia and transphobia, leading to significant mental health challenges for LGBTQ+ individuals. The pressure to conform to these new norms creates profound distress, and the resulting stress and trauma often manifest as disordered eating behaviors. The systemic violence, cultural disconnection, and identity loss further exacerbate feelings of worthlessness and alienation, increasing the risk of eating disorders.
Suppression of Indigenous Practices
The suppression of Indigenous spiritual practices and the coercive and traumatic conversion to Christianity distort perceptions of food and body image. The criminalization of these practices and the introduction of body and sexuality shame contribute to the development of eating disorders. Emotional and physical abuse, identity loss, and gender inequality stemming from these conversion efforts lead to mental health disturbances, creating additional risk factors for eating disorder development.
Conclusion
The legacy of settler colonialism has deeply embedded itself in the physical, psychological, and cultural fabric of Indigenous communities. Patrick Wolfe, an Australian historian and scholar, stated that settler colonialism cannot be situated in the past as a singular nor series of historical events; he describes the process of settler colonialism as “a structure not an event.” It continues to build on top of what has been destroyed.
Settler colonialism is observed in the US, Canada, Australia, and the Israeli occupation of Palestine. Settler colonial projects vary and depend on the situation. While settlement dynamics may change with context, they all share basic similarities that shape similar social, economic, and political relations. Above all, Euro-American settler colonialism in the United States is distinguished by its unprecedented scale and magnitude of violence, with no comparable parallel. The sheer volume of settlers, the speed of territorial expansion, and the intensity of genocidal violence make US settler colonization unique.
The disruptions caused by settler colonial practices lead to a range of stressors and traumas that heighten the risk of eating disorder development for indigenous groups, non-settlers and non-indigenous groups. Addressing these issues requires a holistic approach that acknowledges the historical and ongoing impacts of settler colonialism and works towards restoring the sovereignty, health, and cultural practices of Indigenous peoples.
Recognizing the deeply intertwined nature of these factors is crucial in developing effective interventions and support systems for Indigenous communities affected by eating disorders. Addressing the root causes of trauma, food insecurity, and cultural disconnection is essential in promoting healing and resilience.
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