Published Oct 27, 2023

Professionals in the field of eating disorders, representing diverse backgrounds, stand united in expressing our steadfast solidarity with Palestine. As we maintain our stance against colonial oppression, we mourn the loss of lives since October 7th, resulting from the Israeli government's extreme colonial actions that prioritize power and land acquisition over the well-being of civilians, unquestionably including Israeli citizens. At a time when many in our profession opt for silence or lend their support to the genocidal actions of the Israeli state, we firmly uphold our unwavering position.

We highlight colonial governments, settler colonialism, and racism as the frameworks responsible for the ongoing crisis and suffering of the Palestinians. We firmly reject all manifestations of racism and violence that have been growing during these times, including Islamophobia, anti-Arab sentiments, hostility towards Palestinians, and anti-Semitism.  We reject the notion that speaking out against the Israeli authorities and anti-zionism are forms of anti-Semitism. We stand in solidarity with the Jewish community who are speaking out against the weaponization of their collective grief for political advancement. 

We stand in unyielding solidarity with the Palestinian resistance, fighting against more than 75 years of Israeli settler-colonialism and apartheid. Palestinians have endured the longest continuous military occupation in modern history. Israeli officials have engaged in the dispossession, confinement, forced separation, and subjugation of Palestinians, resulting in varying degrees of intensity that collectively constitute an apartheid system.

The people of Gaza have suffered through five brutal wars and an unrelenting, inhumane siege that has endured for a staggering 16 years, depriving them of their most basic rights.

Make no mistake, the primary responsibility for this ongoing war and its grievous casualties lies squarely with the Israeli government. Furthermore, the culpability extends to several Western governments, most notably the U.S. government, which not only provides substantial financial backing but also unwavering support for Israeli aggression, apartheid, and settler-colonization. The cumulative military and economic assistance provided by the United States to Israel has exceeded $260 billion. Israel allocates approximately 4.5% of its GDP towards its military expenditures, which surpasses the global average by more than double. This places Israel among the countries with one of the highest military spending-to-GDP ratios worldwide.

We assert that a future of safety and freedom depends on holding the Israeli occupation accountable for its actions and dismantling the status quo of Israel's apartheid and colonial structure.

Would you like to add your name to the solidarity statement? Click Here

Settler Colonialism

Some of us reside in the United States & Canada, which are also settler colonial nations. We are acutely aware of our involvement in settler colonial violence against Indigenous communities and the ongoing dispossession of their land on Turtle Island. We acknowledge the complicity of U.S. imperialism in perpetuating the suffering and loss of life among the Palestinian people, facilitated by the U.S.-backed Israeli government. It is our moral and political obligation to vocally oppose settler colonialism and to condemn the U.S. government's military and financial support of the apartheid state of Israel.

We oppose the military partnership between the colonial nations of the United States and Israel  – a partnership that has existed for decades and continues to uphold violent borders and policing. The United States sends police to train in Israel and utilizes training methods from Israeli run organizations, an example is the Georgia International Law Enforcement Exchange (GILEE). Israeli military technology continues to militarize the border between the United States and Mexico and the United States and the Tohono O'odham Reservation, which is a direct attack on tribal sovereignty. It can be said that Gaza is an experimental testing ground for the militarization of borders for colonial regimes across the world. These are just a few of many reasons why the United States continues to support and legitimize the violence of the Israeli nation state– the United States has a direct stake in supporting settler violence across the world. We call for an end to violent partnerships between the colonial regimes of the United States and Israel. 

Omitting this context, or framing the situation as "unprovoked” dismisses the unrelenting Palestinian suffering that has occurred since the 1948 Nakba. We've encountered a recurring narrative in some parts of the media and the liberal left, suggesting that Palestinians should have pursued "alternative" strategies, such as peaceful marches, protests, strikes, or reliance on international law to advocate for their cause. A brief examination of the history of the Palestinian liberation movement reveals that Palestinians have indeed employed these approaches. However, it's disheartening to observe that they receive minimal support from the media and the political center. The Israeli government has employed significant military to suppress both violent and peaceful manifestations of Palestinian resistance.

In addition, Hamas was funded and purposely placed in Gaza. Former Israeli officials, including Brig. Gen. Yitzhak Segev, who served as the Israeli military governor in Gaza during the early 1980s, have been reported to have provided support to the Palestinian Islamist movement. According to Segev himself, he helped finance the Palestinian Islamist movement to act as a "counterweight" to the secularists and leftists of the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Fatah party, which was led by Yasser Arafat. It's worth noting that Yasser Arafat once referred to Hamas as "a creature of Israel." Read more here. 

We acknowledge that the call for peace to many means a plea for silent acquiescence to a system of systemic violence. There is no more “going back to what things were” and peace is not really “peace” if it means maintaining or supporting apartheid and genocide of any group. A ceasefire is only the beginning. 

It is evident that the mainstream media employs deliberate rhetoric that obscures the long-standing violence endured by Palestinians and shifts the blame for these tragedies away from Israel. The use of terms like "conflict" and "war in the Middle East" serves to delegitimize the Palestinian people's quest for self-determination in the face of Israel's apartheid policies. Such language intentionally hinders our ability to recognize the continuous violence as a manifestation of ethnic cleansing. We oppose the notion of "both sides" in contexts of oppressive power that dehumanizes people and labels them as "terrorists," stripping them of their dignity and humanity, along with their right to pursue justice.

As eating disorder providers, we have come together to shed light on settler colonialism and connect how genocide, settler colonialism, & apartheid fuel eating disorders and how being committed to the care of individuals living with eating disorders compels us to reject neutrality and apathy in the face of Palestinian suffering and genocide.

Colonialism Festers Eating Disorders, Genocide Provokes Eating Disorders

Eating disorders have never been apolitical matters. The eating disorder recovery industry has historically embraced a Eurocentric, depoliticized, and individualistic perspective when depicting eating disorder pathology. Even when trauma history is taken into account in relation to eating disorders, it often simplifies traumatic events as vague, isolated occurrences that are not directly linked to the broader framework of global systemic oppression. Repeatedly, activists and individuals from marginalized communities have underlined that eating disorders are not simply "brain disorders" but instead represent responses to political turmoil and historical violence. Eating disorders can be seen as natural reactions to the influence of Western culture and the legacy of settler colonialism.

Dispossesion, warfare, ethnocide, ethnic cleansing, gender and sexual violence, ecological degradation – all evoke physical responses and collective grief. Prolonged systemic oppression leads to enduring emotional, psychological, and spiritual manifestations within the current generation, which can then be transmitted across generations. This transmission takes various forms, including environmental (such as food insecurity), physiological changes, genetic influences, and psychosocial factors, to name a few.

As eating disorder providers deeply committed to an intersectional perspective that opposes oppression, we view it as integral to our mission to illuminate the interplay of global injustices and their link to eating disorders. The following research explores the connections between trauma, genocide, historical trauma, food insecurity, and eating disorders:

Trauma is inevitably connected to the development of eating disorders: 

• Childhood adversity and major traumatic events are important risk factors that occur in 37-74% of cases of eating disorders (Aoun, 2013). 

The Incidence of High-Risk Disordered Eating Among Adolescents and Young Adults in the Middle East

• Nineteen research studies comprising a total of 16,288 participants, with a majority of 65.8% being female, were conducted in various countries including Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates. The prevalence of High-Risk Disordered Eating (HRDE) exhibited significant variation across these nations. Notably, the lowest rates were observed among Israeli adolescents, with 8.2% for females and 2.8% for males, while the highest rates were found among Egyptian university students, with 75.8% for females and 69.6% for males (Azzeh, 2022).

• Lebanese clinicians completed individual questionnaires regarding their 2013 outpatients with eating disorders ( and engaged in focus group discussions. The findings revealed that bulimia nervosa was the most frequently observed eating disorder (46.1%), followed by anorexia nervosa (39.4%), and binge eating (14.4%) (Zeeni, 2017)

Famine and violence is detrimental for survivors physical and mental health:

• Research examining the health and overall well-being of the descendants of survivors of famines in the context of violent repression by occupying forces, such as An Gorta Mór (the Great Hunger) in Ireland between 1845 and 1852 and De Hongerwinter (the Hunger Winter) in Holland in 1944-45, reveals that these groups bear common legacies marked by increased rates of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and mental health issues (Robertson, 2023).

Increased risk of eating disorders for those in the military:

• In a study involving 642 male war veterans, it was revealed that exposure to multiple types of trauma is associated with an increased risk of developing eating disorder symptoms. Notably, traumas related to military service were significantly linked to more severe symptoms. While the impact of war-related stress on civilians can be particularly intense, there is a notable absence of studies examining the effects of war on eating disorders in refugees. In fact, the disruption of food supply, which can result in unregulated eating patterns and, at times, enforced dieting, adds to the array of detrimental factors brought about by war. These include disturbances in daily routines, displacement, housing challenges, loss of family members, and exposure to traumatic events like serious injuries or fatalities (Aoun, 2018).

Mental health in refugee populations:

• Numerous studies have observed the development of PTSD among refugees, often as a consequence of experiencing war-related trauma or specific aspects of the migration process, including relocating to a foreign country, unemployment, and inadequate housing conditions (Aoun, 2018). Depression can manifest as a symptom of PTSD, and there exists a mutual interconnection between eating disorders and depression (Saleem, 2014). Additionally, anxiety is recognized as another symptom of PTSD, and it is commonly reported as developing before the onset of an eating disorder (Pallister, 2007).

• In a study conducted on Syrian refugees, they found a significant association between positive eating disorder screens and the presence of chronic medical conditions, highlighting the increased vulnerability of individuals dealing with both chronic diseases and PTSD to develop an eating disorder (Aoun, 2018).

War and food insecurity increases likelihood of eating disorders:

• Community violence exposure, particularly victimization, was linked to symptoms of eating disorders (ED), and this connection was consistent across both boys and girls in Russia, USA, and Belgium (Isaksson, 2023).

• The interruption of food supply, resulting in irregular eating patterns constitutes a stress-inducing element that compounds the negative consequences of genocide. This includes the disturbance of daily routines, loss of family members, and witnessing severe injuries or fatalities. This specific factor, combined with heightened stress levels, may elevate the likelihood of developing eating disorders, alongside anxiety, depression, and PTSD (Aoun, 2013). 

• Families with food insecurity may go through times when they have less food, and other times when they have more. This cycle is sometimes called "feast or famine." During times of not having enough food, people might eat less, and when there's plenty of food, they might overeat, which can lead to binge eating. Additionally, not having enough food can be stressful and trigger the release of cortisol, a stress hormone, which might also contribute to binge eating behaviors (Nagata, 2023).

• Exposure to dangerous explosions has also been found to contribute to a higher likelihood of developing an eating disorder (Bachir, 2023). 

• Both longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies have consistently demonstrated a strong association between stressors and traumas, particularly childhood maltreatment, and eating disorders, particularly those characterized by binge eating and/or purging behaviors. These stressors encompass a wide range of experiences, including sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, harsh physical punishment, as well as exposure to captivity, life-threatening illness or injury, severe human suffering, sudden violent or accidental death, or other highly distressing events  (Brewerton, 2022).

Genocide causes intergenerational trauma that increase likelihood of eating disorders:

• Studies show that between 40% and 60% of the differences we see in people with anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorder (BED) can be attributed to their genetics. In simpler terms, these conditions have a significant genetic component. Additionally, genetics also play a significant role in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociation (Brewerton, 2022).

• Significant research on the Dutch Famine 1944-1945 and the Chinese Famine 1959-1962 has demonstrated that inadequate nutrition during prenatal and early life stages profoundly affects fetal development. Importantly, individuals who experienced famine during the prenatal period not only displayed physical consequences later in life, but it was also suggested that these effects could be passed down to their descendants, possibly through epigenetic mechanisms (Tolkunova, 2023).

• There are three pathways through which changes can be passed down in families. First, changes in how genes function can occur in both sperm and egg cells. Second, changes can arise due to disruptions in the attachment relationship between caregivers and children. Third, epigenetic changes result from environmental influences that determine when and how genes are activated or deactivated. Genes often form intricate networks, and sometimes it's the entire network that experiences switching on or off, rather than individual genes (Robertson, 2023).

• During the formation of egg and sperm cells and the development of a fetus in the womb, environmental factors can create epigenetic markers, particularly through a process called cytosine methylation, which silences the expression of specific genes. These mechanisms appear to be the body's way of adapting its physiology to suit the surrounding environment, helping it function optimally in response to various stressors (Robertson, 2023). 

• In one study they found that mothers who experienced greater levels of exposure to the World War II Jewish Holocaust tend to have daughters with a higher likelihood of having eating disorders. Although there is no direct connection between an individual's exposure to and their own eating disorder, there appears to be an intergenerational influence (Zohar, 2007).

Settler colonization and genocide impact indigenous people’s eating disorder rates

• Indigenous communities impacted by colonization and genocide experience elevated rates of eating disorders. For instance, eating disorders are common in First Australians and are associated with high levels of overvaluation of weight and shape and binge eating (Burt, 2020).

It is evident that food insecurity, genocide, and settler colonialism significantly exacerbate eating disorder behaviors. Systemic violence forces individuals into a situation where disordered eating becomes an unfortunate necessity. When access to critical resources such as clean water, healthcare, sustenance, and secure shelter is severed, disordered eating is often an inevitability."

Eating disorders frequently serve as coping mechanisms aimed at escaping, numbing emotions, regulating an overly active nervous system, exerting control over one's body, and striving for autonomy under repressive conditions. Additionally, these disorders may be perceived as attempts to conform to gendered, racialized, and classed norms as a means of survival, while also manifesting as internalized self-loathing and self-harm. In essence, eating disorders become a way of internalizing the disarray in the world.

Genocide and colonialism are collective, historical memories that resonate with people worldwide, resulting in the activation of traumatic conditions that lead to stressors increasing disorderly eating. The impact of genocide transcends those directly targeted; it extends to those who bear witness to the atrocities.

Although profound harm has already been inflicted upon future generations, we must persistently raise our voices against the inhumane acts perpetrated against Palestinians. 

Would you like to add your name to the solidarity statement? Click Here

Genocide is contagious…and we must tackle genocide of any peoples. 

A mere handful of eating disorder providers who advocate against the Palestinian genocide persist in facing vilification within the eating disorder recovery community. Nevertheless, we stand resolute in our unwavering support for Palestinians, and we will not turn our backs on Palestinians' right to self-determination.

The eating disorder community’s alleged commitment to body liberation thus far has only extended to those privileged enough to not have to protect their physical bodies from state sanctioned violence. It has become increasingly clear that eating disorder treatment facilities and practitioners have unjustly taken advantage of the labor provided by BIPOC individuals who have been on the frontlines, all the while cynically appropriating aspects of liberation frameworks for shallow, marketing-driven objectives. The era of aesthetic activism must come to a close. 

True solidarity with oppressed groups demands a price because it must disrupt the harmful norms prevailing in the world. We will never get a grip on the pandemic of eating disorders unless we learn to be courageous. It's imperative that we welcome rejection from the dominant discourse of colonialism and the capitalist world. We must be fearless in the face of genocide. We aspire to a world in which no community is confined to internment camps and deprived of fundamental human rights and self determination. We cannot and will not abandon the Palestinian people.

Donate to Palestine Aid Groups:

Mutual Aid

https://www.dci-palestine.org/

https://www.anera.org/

https://www.pcrf.net

https://baitulmaal.org

Resources for Palestinians/Arabs/Muslims:

@amaly.mindset (have posted healing circles on their IG)

https://www.lcpal.ca/

https://palestinianyouthmovement.com/

@palmhnwellness

@mar._unfiltered

@ourhealingvision

@calamansi_counseling

Maristan.org

www.bayareamuslimtherapists.org 

www.socalmuslimtherapists.org.

https://www.instagram.com/forthebinat/

https://palestinianfeministcollective.org/

Educational Resources:

Decolonizing Israel, Liberating Palestine

https://www.instagram.com/elicalebon/

https://www.instagram.com/sbeih.jpg/

Al-Nakba: The Palestinian catastrophe - Episode 1 | Featured Documentary

https://www.instagram.com/thedreamdefenders/?hl=en

https://www.instagram.com/littlejusticeleaders/

Resources for Jews in Solidarity with Palestine:

Jews For Palestine Resources

https://www.ifnotnowmovement.org/

https://www.jewishvoiceforpeace.org/ 

https://www.ijvcanada.org/

https://www.instagram.com/sim_bookstagrams_badly/?hl=en

https://www.tiktok.com/tag/thepalestinepod

https://www.instagram.com/wendyelisheva/?hl=en

https://jewishcurrents.org/

https://www.instagram.com/j3wess/

https://www.instagram.com/jewitches/ 

https://www.autostraddle.com/as-a-jewish-anti-zionist-heres-what-ive-been-reading-this-week/

https://www.akpress.org/thereisnothingsowhole.html

This statement is signed by: 

Naomi Kidder, MA, LPC

Vivian Selles, ERYT-500, RYT-500, YACEP

Jessica Pratas, LICSW 

Gloria Lucas Nalgona Positivity Pride Founder 

Tessa Komine, MS, RDN, LD, CD

Taylor Pajunen, Wyoming

Zohal Heidari, PhD

Jessica Scalzo, Compassionate Peer Counseling

Christina Sun Oo, LCPC, CCTP

Sylvia Soto, MS, LMFT

Laura Watson, MS, RD, LDN

Rowen Beaudoin-Colegrove, MS, LMFT

Angel B Casas, ACE CPT

Banger Bansal

Alex Rodriguez, Behavioral Health Specialist 

Sula Malina, LMSW

Jessica Steinbach, MPH, RDN, CSSD 

Jessalyn Gagui, OTD, OTR/L, CTP

Leslie Jordan Garcia, MPH, MBA, CEDRS

Kathryn Leachman, LPC-S, NCC

Shantal Becerril, LGA, RD.

Sydney Benator, MSW, RD

Alex Quinn, MS, LPC-Associate

Mun Cho, RD

Joanna Bunker, MSW, LICSW

Ariel L. Beccia, PhD

Sabrina Khawaja, APCC

SJ Belmonte, MSW, Founder of Resilient Fat Goddex

Vaughn Darst, MS RD

Brenna Velez, MS, RDN, LD -Founder of Bread & Butter Nutrition Therapy, LLC

Kate Gaffney, RD

Megan L. Mills, student, psychotherapist trainee, lived experience with eating disorders 

Anneka Spice

Alyssa Moukheiber

Leanne Green, APD

Sara Gonzalez

Sand Chang PhD

Jennifer Lopez

Ashley Jasmin Flores Cornejo

Leah Parisian, LCSW

Star Resendez , msw student

Samantha Barash 

Madison Rivas, RDN, CD, LDN

Rachel Larkey, MS, RD, CDN, CLC

Sydni Higbee

Dani Pezzuto

Katelyn Atkins RD, LDN

Gaby Lopez, MS, RD

Jaya Roy MA, MSW, LCSW

Cara D’Anello MS RD LDN

Lucia Gaviria, CCI recovery coach

Bethany Montez

Carly Compton, B.Ed, MSW, Associate Clinician

Katelyn Atkins RD, LDN

Dani Pezzuto

Sydni Higbee

Sophie Wilkus QMHA, MPA:HA

Rachel Onusko, RD

Sarah Stoner

Marissa Rayo

Sarah Johnston

Isabelle Roman

Hannah Knapp, LMHC

Nancy Woo, MPH, CN

Lenni Shea

Kalli tecpatl 

Brandy Gillihan, LMHC 

María-Lourdes Aragón Nichols, RDN

Destiny Rendon, MA, LMHC of Enchanted Forest Counseling and Therapy PLLC

Melissa Alvarez

Elizabeth Payne RDN at Embodied Nutrition Therapy

Julissa Contreras Castanon

Felicia M Hernandez

Katharina Copelmayer

Hana Abdualziz Feeney, MS, RD

Cassie Flowers, MS, RD, LD

Rosaline Mayfield, RD

Debra Leighton

Erin Hipple, MSW, MA, LCSW, PhD

Malak Saddy

Rebecca Edmonds

Phoenix Biancamano

Rachel Kaufman, MSW Candidate & Clinical Intern at SkyART

Shiki

Leo Pontius

Kaitlyn Kuehn

Cass Howlett, Counseling Intern, The Rainbow Circles

Rebecca Schneider

Sarah Baca, MSW, RCSWI

Alexandria J Rakes LMSW

Works Cited:

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Aoun A, Garcia FD, Mounzer C, Hlais S, Grigioni S, Honein K, Déchelotte P. War stress may be another risk factor for eating disorders in civilians: a study in Lebanese university students. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2013 Jul-Aug;35(4):393-7. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.02.007. Epub 2013 Apr 1. PMID: 23557894.

Azzeh M, Peachey G, Loney T. Prevalence of High-Risk Disordered Eating Amongst Adolescents and Young Adults in the Middle East: A Scoping Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Apr 26;19(9):5234. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19095234. PMID: 35564636; PMCID: PMC9102249.

Bachir, Yara, et al. "The Risk of Eating Disorders Following the August 4th, 2020 Explosion in Beirut and Its Relationship With Trauma Exposure and PTSD Symptoms." Asian Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 89, 2023, p. 103749.

Border Militarization and Corporate Outsourcing | NNIRR. (2015, June 23). https://nnirr.org/programs/seeking-border-justice/border-militarization-and-corporate-outsourcing/

Burt, A., Mannan, H., Touyz, S. et al. Prevalence of DSM-5 diagnostic threshold eating disorders and features amongst Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander peoples (First Australians). BMC Psychiatry 20, 449 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02852-1

Brewerton, T.D. Mechanisms by which adverse childhood experiences, other traumas and PTSD influence the health and well-being of individuals with eating disorders throughout the life span. J Eat Disord 10, 162 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-022-00696-6

Hazzard, V.M., Loth, K.A., Hooper, L. et al. Food Insecurity and Eating Disorders: a Review of Emerging Evidence. Curr Psychiatry Rep 22, 74 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-020-01200-0

Isaksson J, Isaksson M, Stickley A, Vermeiren R, Koposov R, Schwab-Stone M, Ruchkin V. Community Violence Exposure and Eating Disorder Symptoms among Belgian, Russian and US Adolescents: Cross-Country and Gender Perspectives. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2023 Aug 22. doi: 10.1007/s10578-023-01590-1. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 37606867.

Nagata, J. M., Chu, J., Cervantez, L., Ganson, K. T., Testa, A., Jackson, D. B., Murray, S. B., & Weiser, S. D. (2023). Food insecurity and binge-eating disorder in early adolescence. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 56(6), 1233–1239. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23944

Pallister E, Waller G. Anxiety in the eating disorders: understanding the overlap. Clin Psychol Rev. 2008 Mar;28(3):366-86. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2007.07.001. Epub 2007 Jul 17. PMID: 17707562.

Parrish, W. (2019a, August 25). The U.S. Border Patrol and an Israeli Military Contractor Are Putting a Native American Reservation Under “Persistent Surveillance.” The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2019/08/25/border-patrol-israel-elbit-surveillance/

Robertson, F., Coall, D., McAullay, D., & Nannup, A. (2019). Intergenerational influences of hunger and community violence on the Aboriginal people of Western Australia: A review. International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies, 12(2), 34–46. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.295116278004813

Tolkunova, K., Usoltsev, D., Moguchaia, E. et al. Transgenerational and intergenerational effects of early childhood famine exposure in the cohort of offspring of Leningrad Siege survivors. Sci Rep 13, 11188 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37119-8

Webteam, W. (2016, August 25). Where Do Many Police Departments Train? In Israel. Amnesty International USA. https://www.amnestyusa.org/updates/with-whom-are-many-u-s-police-departments-training-with-a-chronic-human-rights-violator-israel/

Saleem, Muhammad; Sattar, Sidra; Zafar, Maryam; Bin Ismail, Rozmi (2014) : Link between eating disorders and depression, Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences (PJCSS), ISSN 2309-8619, Johar Education Society, Pakistan (JESPK), Lahore, Vol. 8, Iss. 3, pp. 925-937

Zeeni N, Safieddine H, Doumit R. Eating Disorders in Lebanon: Directions for Public Health Action. Community Ment Health J. 2017 Jan;53(1):117-125. doi: 10.1007/s10597-015-9917-x. Epub 2015 Aug 19. PMID: 26286080.

Zohar, A. H., Giladi, L., & Givati, T. (2007). Holocaust exposure and disordered eating: A study of multi-generational transmission. European Eating Disorders Review, 15(1), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.730